Kinematic investigation of projectile penetration in soils using experimental testing and DEM simulation
Journal
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering
Journal Volume
210
Start Page
110517
ISSN
02677261
Date Issued
2026-11
Author(s)
Abstract
This study presents an integrated experimental–numerical investigation of projectile penetration in pure kaolinite and layered soils, with emphasis on developing a predictive framework for penetration depth. Laboratory free-fall penetration tests were conducted to examine the effects of projectile mass and nose geometry, and the results were used to calibrate and validate a discrete element method (DEM) model. Comparison between simulations and experiments showed close agreement, with penetration depth discrepancies generally within 10%, confirming the reliability of the adopted modeling approach. Using the validated DEM model, a comprehensive parametric study was performed to quantify the influence of initial velocity, soil friction coefficient, and projectile shape factor (N). Results indicate that increasing impact velocity significantly enhances penetration depth due to higher kinetic energy, while increasing interparticle friction reduces penetration by increasing shear resistance and energy dissipation. Increasing the projectile shape factor from N = 0.684 to N = 0.956 resulted in deeper penetration due to reduced frontal resistance and improved stress transmission. This study introduces a quantitative analysis of kinetic energy dissipation during penetration, revealing that layered soil dissipates kinetic energy more rapidly than homogeneous kaolinite, resulting in a 20–25% reduction in penetration depth due to interfacial resistance and enhanced particle rearrangement. Furthermore, a unified empirical model is developed to predict penetration depth by incorporating the combined effects of velocity, mass-to-area ratio, projectile geometry, and soil friction. The proposed framework provides new insight into projectile–soil interaction mechanisms and establishes a practical predictive tool for underground and tunnel protection design. By integrating experimental validation, DEM analysis, energy-based interpretation, and empirical modeling, this study advances current understanding of penetration behavior in cohesive and layered soils.
Subjects
Discrete element method (DEM)
Impact mechanics
Kaolinite and layered soils
Projectile penetration
Publisher
Elsevier Ltd
Type
journal article