Ecotoxicological effect of ketamine: Evidence of acute, chronic and photolysis toxicity to Daphnia magna
Journal
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
Journal Volume
143
Pages
173-179
Date Issued
2017
Author(s)
Abstract
Ketamine has been increasingly used in medicine and has the potential for abuse or illicit use around the world. Ketamine cannot be removed by conventional wastewater treatment plants. Although ketamine and its metabolite norketamine have been detected to a significant degree in effluents and aquatic environments, their ecotoxicity effects in aquatic organisms remain undefined. In this study, we investigated the acute toxicity of ketamine and its metabolite, along with the chronic reproductive toxicity of ketamine (5–100 μg/L) to Daphnia magna. Multiple environmental scenarios were also evaluated, including drug mixtures and sunlight irradiation toxicity. Ketamine and norketamine caused acute toxicity to D. magna, with half lethal concentration (LC50) values of 30.93 and 25.35 mg/L, respectively, after 48 h of exposure. Irradiated solutions of ketamine (20 mg/L) significantly increased the mortality of D. magna; pre-irradiation durations up to 2 h rapidly increased the death rate to 100%. A new photolysis byproduct (M.W. 241) of norketamine that accumulates during irradiation was identified for the first time. The relevant environmental concentration of ketamine produced significant reproductive toxicity effects in D. magna, as revealed by the reduction of the number of total live offspring by 33.6–49.8% (p < 0.05). The toxicity results indicate that the environmental hazardous risks of the relevant ketamine concentration cannot be ignored and warrant further examination. © 2017 Elsevier Inc.
Subjects
Aquatic toxicity; Daphnia; Irradiation; Ketamine; Reproductive toxicity
Other Subjects
ketamine; ketamine; norketamine; water pollutant; concentration (composition); crustacean; drug; ecotoxicology; metabolite; photolysis; reproductive behavior; reproductive success; zooplankton; acute toxicity; animal experiment; Article; chronic toxicity; controlled study; Daphnia magna; ecotoxicology; LC50; mortality; nonhuman; photolysis; phototoxicity; reproductive toxicity; sunlight; analogs and derivatives; animal; Daphnia; drug effects; LD50; radiation response; reproduction; toxicity; toxicity testing; water pollutant; Daphnia; Daphnia magna; Animals; Daphnia; Ketamine; Lethal Dose 50; Photolysis; Reproduction; Toxicity Tests, Acute; Toxicity Tests, Chronic; Water Pollutants, Chemical
Type
journal article